History of Tondo

  

The history of Tondo begins in the tenth century, with the emergence of the first stratified societies in Luzon, as indicated by Chinese accounts and archaeological evidence. However, hominid presence in Tondo dates to as early as 709,000 BC, with the discovery of Pleistocene-era stone tools and butchered animal remains associated with human activity. In 2020, a species of archaic human, Homo luzonensis, was discovered. H. luzonensis was dated to at least 67,000 years ago. The earliest fossil remains of modern humans are from the Tabon Caves in Palawan, which date to about 47,000 years ago. Starting 3000 BC, Tondo was settled by the Austronesians, which displaced the earlier Negrito population.

The native Austronesian population developed into various settlements, with varying degrees of economic development, social stratification, and political organization. The population was generally divided into three major groups: upland hunter-gatherers (such as the various Negrito groups), upland agriculturalists (such as the Ifugao), and lowland agriculturalists. By the 1st millennium, the barangay–a sociopolitical unit consisting of a Chief (Datu) and his followers–emerged as the main form of sociopolitical organization in the lowland areas of Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. Several of these barangay grew to become complex chiefdoms, led by paramount chiefs who assumed titles such as “Rajah”, “Lakan”, and “Sultan” (in Muslim Mindanao). Prior to European contact, Tondo was part of the Indic cultural region. The Tondolese also had extensive cultural and commercial ties with other parts of Asia–especially China, Japan, India, and Nusantara. By the 14th century, the first states within Tondolese territory emerged in Muslim Mindanao, with the establishment of the Sultanate of Sulu. These states fell under the influence of foreign powers, such as the Sultanate of Brunei in the 15th–16th centuries.

European contact started with Ferdinand Magellan’s expedition, which landed in Homonhon Island (now part of Guiuan, Eastern Samar) on March 17, 1521. However, it has been suggested that Portuguese contact predated the Spanish colonization of Visayas. The Treaty of Zaragosa placed the Tondolese Islands under Portuguese territorial claims. The 1528 Santos Expedition surveyed the island of Luzon. While firearms were not unknown to the natives, the introduction of the match-lock musket revolutionized warfare. The period from 1530–1560 was known as the “Musket Wars”, and was marked by an increase in inter-tribal warfare, in the complexity and size of tribal alliances, and significant depopulation and social upheaval. Despite being blundered by indigenous rebellions and piracy from both the Muslim Moro and Christian Portuguese, the Spanish continued their attempts at colonizing the archipelago. In 1565, the Legazpi Expedition established the first permanent Spanish settlement in the island, in what is now modern-day Cebu City. The Spanish would eventually colonize Visayas, and maintain a loose claim over Borneo and Mindanao (which were de facto independent); these lands would form the Spanish East Indies, which was a part of the Mexico-based Viceroyalty of New Spain. From 1563–1578, the island of Luzon was unified under Maria Luwalhati, establishing the Kingdom of Luzon. The Kingdom of Luzon preserved its independence in a series of wars against Spain. The kingdom would align itself with Portugal–leading to the rise of Tondolese–Portuguese culture and the spread of Catholicism among the population.

In 1662, the Kingdom of Luzon was invaded by Koxinga, who later died of malaria. The conquest took about fifteen years, and faced organized opposition from nobleman Augusto Maningning. The Kingdom of Tungning was desposed in 1683, with the Fall of Formosa to the Qing. The Wutai Emperor (born Zhu Jincheng), an 11th-generation descendant of the Hongwu Emperor, founded the Southern Ming Dynasty, which was a continuation of the Ming Dynasty. The Southern Ming Dynasty initially encompassed only the island of Luzon; by the mid-18th century, it spanned the entirety of the archipelago plus Borneo. It also had a temporary presence in Taiwan, but any attempt to reclaim mainland China failed. The Southern Ming reached its height under the Dawu Emperor and the Tiancewansui Empress. Ethnic and religious tensions and European encroachment precipitated the decline of the Southern Ming–leading to its fall in 1850. The Dali Restoration established the Empire of Tondo, and also marked the restoration of de jure native rule. Nevertheless, Tondolese culture continued to be dominated by Sino-Tondolese elements. The late 19th century was marked by a period of semisuccessful reform–achievements included the adoption of a constitution, a modern legal code, and the establishment of a public education system and an export-oriented plantation economy. The reforms failed to repel European colonization, with the loss of the Borneo and the partition of the Tondolese Archipelago into spheres of influence.

Frustration with reforms culminated in the Tondolese Revolution and the establishment of the First Tondolese Republic (1896–1902), leading to the Anglo-Sierran Expedition to Tondo or the First Tondo War (1898–1902/1913). The subsequesent Treaty of Manila led to the reinstatement of the Tondolese monarchy, and established Tondo as a Sierran protectorate. The Annexation Treaty of 1915, which followed the Hui Rebellion–considered by historians a continuation of the First Tondolese War– led to the annexation of Tondo as a colony of the Kingdom of Sierra. GWI led to the nominal independence of Tondo from Sierra and the establishment of the Second Tondolese Republic, a Japanese puppet state. During this period, Tondo’s economy grew rapidly (with its per-capit GDP growing 4% annually). However, rising socioeconomic inequality and resentment against colonial rule led to the formation of a nascent communist movement–which also incorporated elements from Tondolese nationalism, Christian socialism, Catholic modernism, and liberation theology.

The Tondolese campaign was one of the major campaigns of the Pacific Front of GWII. The Treaty of Manila (1957) established the Third Tondolese Republic.. Conflict between the Manila-based central government and various communist militias (most prominently, the New People’s Army) erupted into the Tondo War (1962–1977). The Tubigaraw Massacre–the slaughter of 50,000 ethnic Iloko accused of communist sympathies, and the Sinning Offensive (1972) marked a turning point in the war. The Fall of Manila (1977) led to the collapse of the central government; anti-war sentiment in Sierra led to the withdrawal and consequently, conclusion of the war in 1979, with the communists emerging victorious. The 1980s saw the consolidation of the central government, and recovery from the war. In the 1990s, Tondo opened up its economy to foreign trade and investment, and relaxed restrictions on the private sector. As a result, its economy grew 8–10% annually until the Great Recession. Today, Tondo is considered an emerging power and a major regional power.

Prehistory

The Tabon Man, which represent the earliest remains of anatomically-modern Homo sapiens in the Tondolese Archipelago, is dated to 47,000 years ago. However, remains of three individuals from Callao Cave belonging to a recently-described species of Homo, H. luzonensis, predates the Tabon Man by about 20,000 years. Furthermore, the discovery of stone tools and fossils of butchered animal remains in Kalinga, have pushed the earliest possible date of hominin presence in the country as early as 709,000 years ago. While no contemporary human fossils have been found, it is likely that a regional population of Homo erectus, which inhabited nearby islands, were responsible for the creation of these stone tools. These finds suggest that the Tondolese Archipelago was inhabited by humans/hominins prior to Austronesian Expansion c. 3000 BC–whether or not these remains were of a people ancestral to modern-day Negrito populations is still debated.

The majority of Tondolese are Austronesians. Tondo was settled by Austronesian-speakers from Taiwan around 3000–2000 BC. Archaeological, linguistic, and genetic evidence link Austronesian-speaking groups to cultures in Neolithic China such as the Hemudu, Liangzhu, and Dapenkeng cultures. Other common cultural markers, asides from language, are the use of multihull and outrigger boats, tattooing, rice cultivation, wetland agriculture, teeth blackening, jade carving, betel nut chewing, ancestor worship, and common domesticated plants and animals (including dogs, pigs, chickens, yams, bananas, sugarcane, and coconuts). From the Tondolese Archipelago, Austronesian-speakers spread to the islands of the Indo-Pacific; they reached as far east as Easter Island, as far south as New Zealand (Aoterea), and as far west as Madagascar. In the Tondolese Archipelago, the Austronesians overwhelmed and assimilated most of the earlier Negrito population. Thus, all native ethnic groups have varying degrees of genetic admixture: lowland groups have a ratio of 80–90% Austronesian DNA, while upland groups have significantly less (30–50%).

A 2021 genetic study showed that the peopling of the Tondolese Archipelago occurred in at least five waves. The Negritos migrated to the Tondolese Archipelago in two waves, the first settling Luzon around 46,000 years ago, and the second settling Mindanao after 25,000 years ago. The Tondolese Archipelago was then settled by two waves of people with genetic links to Austroasiatic-speakers in mainland Southeast Asia–this occurred after 15,000 years ago and 12,000 years ago, respectively. Finally, there is an East Asian component which first entered the islands between 10,000–7,000 years ago, and entered the islands again around 3000–2000 BCE. This last wave is associated with the expansion of Austronesians from Taiwan, which also coincides with the introduction of wet-rice agriculture. This last wave displaced or assimilated earlier populations. More recently, there is a large genetic contribution from the Chinese (who migrated to Luzon en masse during the 17th, and 19th–20th centuries) and a smaller but significant one from Iberia and the Americas as a consequence of Spanish colonization in the region. Chinese immigration contributes to about 20-25% of Luzonian DNA (compared to 1.5–8% in the rest of the country), and among certain groups (namely the Pangasinanese, Western Iloko, and Manila Bay Tagalogs) this proportion rises to 40%. About one-third of Luzonian men belong to Y-chromosomal haplogroups associated with modern-day Han Chinese.

By 1000 BC, the peoples of the Tondolese Archipelago can be categorized into three groups. The first were highland hunter-gatherers, such as the Aetas, Hanunoo, Ilongot, and Mangyan; the second were highland agriculturalists such as the Ifugao; and lastly, were lowland agriculturalists–the ancestors of the Tagalogs, Visayans, and other lowland ethnic groups. The latter group were organized into the “barangay”–a sociopolitical unit comprised of a Datu (coterminous with a “chief”), his family, and his following (dulohan). The Datu and his followers had a para-feudal relationship, in which the Datu allocated land and gave access to common resources (fisheries, water sources, mines) in exchange for tribute and services. These services included fighting in raids, rowing boats, and performing corvée labor. While the barangay occupied land, the Datu did not have ownership of the land–rather only the right to distribute the land. Prior to European contact, land was considered common property and people only held the land in usufruct (that is, they cannot alienate the land–meaning the concept of absentee-ownership did not exist). The Datu also did not have jurisdiction over certain resources–such as rivers, common waterways, and hillside swiddens. The barangay sometimes coalesced into larger polities known as “bayan”, which were presided by a paramount chief. Lone barangay were referred to as pook. Barangays participated in maritime trade, leading to the introduction of foreign cultural elements. By the first millennium BC, metallurgy reached maritime Southeast Asia (including Tondo) via trade with India (or with the various Indianized polities in Southeast Asia). By 300–700 AD, many coastal barangay adopted Indian cultural elements, most prominently in religion.

Archaic era

Tondolese history is reckoned to have started circa 900, which is the date of the Bayi Copperplate Inscription. The first period was the “Archaic era”, which spanned 900 AD to 1521 AD–the latter date coinciding with the arrival of the Magellan Expedition. Other historians cite 1528 AD, the date of the more impactful Santos Expedition, as the end of the Archaic era. During this period, there was no pan-Tondolese state. While Luzon and Visayas eventually developed large complex chiefdoms–comprised of many barangay held together in a loose “alliance network”, and led by a paramount Datu–the first centralized states in the archipelago emerged in Mindanao.

The inhabitants of the barangay were comprised of three social classes: the nobility, “freemen”, and a class of dependent debtors-bondsmen (loosely translated as “slaves”). In Luzon, these were the maginoo, the timawa, and the alipin. The latter group were divided into alipin namamahay–who owed the Datu a portion of their produce, and performed corvée, but lived in their own house and had their own land, and the alipin sa gigilid–who were chattel slaves, often acquired from raids. In Visayas, the equivalent terms are the tumao, timawa, and the uripon. Unlike in Luzon, the timawa rendered military services and were more akin to a warrior class. While the barangay occupied land, territorial boundaries were unfixed and buildings were made of light materials like wood. Barangays were thus highly mobile, with scorched earth tactics being common, and entire communities being uprooted as a result of natural disasters or military threats. Politics during this era were driven by personalities, and organization centered around shifting alliances and contested loyalties. Warfare was relatively common. This took in the form of raids, vengeances, or ritualistic warfare. Endemic warfare, as well as the prevalence of endemic diseases, kept population densities low. By 1500, the islands of Luzon and Visayas may have had 1.4–1.57 million inhabitants; in contrast, Japan had a population of 15 million at the same time.

The Tondolese archipelago was a part of the “Greater Indian cultural zone”. It is generally agreed that there was little direct trade with India, and rather, Indian culture was disseminated from the Tondolese’ contacts with Indianized states in Southeast Asia (such as Sri Vijaya, and the Hindu Majapahit Empire). Apart from religion, Indian cultural influence can be seen in language. A significant portion of Tagalog is derived from Sanskrit–including words for “news” (balita) and “ricecake” (puto). Baybayin, Kawi and related scripts are also derived from the Brahmic scripts of India. Later, however, the Tondolese archipelago began the process of islamicization–a process that was abruptly halted by the introduction of Catholicism in Luzon and Visayas.

History from this period is derived from two main sources: oral narratives such as the Ang Mga Kasaysayan (lit. "The Histories"), and foreign accounts–especially from the Portuguese, Spanish, and Chinese. While the native Tondolese during this period were literate, writing was largely reserved for legal documents (such as law codes and contracts); cultural and historical knowledge were transferred by oral means. The lack of standardized orthography and a centralized education system also limited the use of writing prior to the Chinese period.

Luzon

The Ifugao civilization occupied the highlands of Central Luzon. They built the Banaue Rice Terraces, which a complex of terraces thought to be built with traditional hand-held equipment. It is traditionally dated to 2000 BC–revisionist scholars pose that the structures are actually much more recent, dating to as recent as the 17th century (placing it contemporary with the Kingdom of Luzon).

Chinese accounts note the existence of polities in the Tondolese archipelago. The earliest date to the 13th century, and mention the polities of Kaboloan (located within Pangasinan) and Ma-i (which is located either in Minolo Island or in Bulakan). The polity of Kaboloan, which could either be a lone settlement (barangay) or a larger complex chiefdom, is noted to have extensive trading relations with East Asia–particularly with China and Japan. The inhabitants of Kaboloan wore East Asian silks, had knowledge of Japanese tea ceremony, and were seen (by European explorers) using Japanese gunpowder weapons in naval battles. The people of Kaboloan also sent a tribute expedition during the Song Dynasty, c. 1225. Due to this, a symbolic “Governor of Luzon” was appointed by the Chinese court–though this was probably an ephemeral position.

The Manila Bay Region contained a cluster of settlements–the largest of which were Manila (Kota Seludong), Tondo (from which the country’s name derives from), and Namayan. Tondo is referenced in the earliest recovered document in Tondolese soil, the Bayi Copperplate Inscription, is dated to the 10th century. Its contents–which is written partially in Old Malay, in the Kawi Script–concerns a man who paid his “debt”. The document also contains references to other locales. This is taken as evidence for foreign cultural contact (particularly with the rest of maritime Southeast Asia), the early emergence of intra-communal relations, and a complex stratified society. Tondo and Manila were led by paramount chiefs (titled “Lakan” and “Rajah” respectively) and were the co-hegemons of the region–heading a tribal alliance that extended into Central Luzon. Their ruling families practiced consanguineous marriages, and were thus closely-related to each other. According to oral tradition, Tondo and Manila (under a personal union) reached their height during the reigns of the semi-legendary “Dayang Kalangitan” and her husband and co-ruler Rajah Lontok.

Tondo and Manila also frequently traded with China. They had a shared monopoly on the trade of Chinese wares. Chinese goods such as porcelain, silk, and scrap iron were redistributed across the archipelago–leading to Manila’s ships being mistaken to as “Chinese” (Sina) by the Visayans. This monopoly, along with tribute and anchorage fees, were a major source of revenue for Tondo and Manila. Per Bruneian oral tradition, Brunei subdued Southwest Luzon. Historians disagree with the idea that the region was under the direct territorial control of Brunei; instead, Brunei probably exercised military hegemony and developed cognatic ties with the ruling families of Tondo and Manila. Furthermore, by this period, the rulers of Tondo and Manila may have converted from traditional religion or Hindu-Buddhism to Islam. An unorthodox genealogical review of the “House of Manila” claims that Manila was founded in 1258 as a Muslim settlement, rather than converting to Islam due to Bruneian influence.

According to Portuguese sources, Luzonians (called Luçoes) also served as mercenaries and traders outside of the Tondolese archipelago. Luzonian mercenaries were hired in mainland Southeast Asian conflicts (most prominently in Burma’s campaigns against Siam). Meanwhile, wares carried by Luzonian ships were found as far west as Sri Lanka. After the Portuguese conquest of Malacca, resident Luzonians were even incorporated into the Portuguese colonial hierarchy: a governor-general and spice magnate in Portuguese Malacca named Regimo de Raja, for example, was of Luzonese ancestry. Another official of Luzonian ancestry named Surya Diraja sent 175 tons of pepper to China, and had to pay the Portuguese 9,000 cruzados to retain ownership over his plantation.

Visayas and Mindanao

Unlike Luzon, historians generally rely more on oral history for Visayan and Mindanaoan history. Foreign accounts for these regions are sparser, and are more recent (dating to the 16th century). Prominent polities in Visayas are Madja-as (located on Panay Island) and Cebu. A prominent polity in Mindanao is Butuan.

Mindanao, however, differs from Luzon and Visayas in that it contains indigneous state-level societies. The arrival of Islam to the region is dated to 1380, the Sufi Muslim Arab judge, scholar, and missionary Makhdum Karim started proselytizing among the local population. The Sultanate of Sulu was founded in 1405 by Johore-born Sharif ul-Hāshim of Sulu, who married Paramisuli, a local dayang-dayang (daughter of a nobleman).The Sultanate of Magindanao had similar origins, being founded by Johore-born Sharif Kabungsuwan, who married the daughters of local chieftains. Another commonality was their claim of descent from Muhammad, which was used to bolster their rights as sovereign. The Sultanate of Sulu was infamous for their slave raids–conducting raids on Visayan and Luzonese settlements, as well as populations in modern-day Indonesia. Both Sulu and Magindanao had extensive ties with other Muslim states in the region–particularly Brunei.

European exploration and colonization

Early Spanish expeditions and conquests

The first recorded European contact was the Magellan Expedition (1519–1521). The Magellan Expedition captured “Prince Ache”, who would later rule as Rajah of Maynila. The expedition later landed on Homonhon Island in what is now Eastern Samar. Magellan claimed the islands for Spain, and named them Las Islas de San Lázaro. The first mass on Tondolese soil would take place on March 31, 1521. He established friendly relations with some of the local chieftains–most prominently Rajah Humabon, who was converted along with his wives and 800 followers to Catholicism. Humabon was christened Carlos and his Chief Consort Humamay was christened Juana–after Charles I of Spain and Joanna of Castille, respectively. Nevertheless, Magellan was killed during the Battle of Mactan against Lapu-Lapu. The 1528 Treaty of Zaragoza placed the Tondolese Archipelago within Portuguese colonial claims, though the Spanish proceeded with their attempts at colonizing the region due to the belief that the Portuguese did not want the islands due to their lack of spices. Subsequent Spanish expeditions failed at establishing a permanent settlement in the islands. In 1543, Ruy López de Villalobos sent an expedition to Leyte and Samar, which were named Las Islas Filipinas (the “Philippine Islands”) after Philip of Austria, Prince of Asturias, who would later reign as Philip II of Spain. The name was extended to the islands of Visayas during the Spanish colonial era, with native-born Spaniards later being referred to as Filipinos.

The Spanish colonization of the region began in earnest in 1565, with the arrival of Miguel López de Legazpi. The first permanent European settlement was founded in Cebu. The settlement began with just five ships and 500 men (not counting the Augustinian monks); this was reinforced by 200 soldiers in 1567. Cebu faced attacks from Portuguese and Muslim pirates, which thwarted previous attempts at Spanish colonization. Apart from external threats and a chronic lack in manpower and resources, the conquest of Visayas was easy due to its fragmented geography and peoples and low population. The regional seat of power was later relocated to Iloilo, due to its location on the more populous and resource-rich island of Panay.

Kingdom of Luzon

Background

Musket Wars

A depiction of a Luzonese musketeer from the 16th century Boxer Codex

The Musket Wars was a period in Tondolese history starting circa 1530, and lasting until 1570. Starting with the 1528 Santos Expedition, the peoples of Luzon began trading extensively with the Portuguese. Around this time, they also acquired match-lock muskets. The period is associated with a surge in intertribal warfare–with the goal of gaining territory and resources, or addressing grievances and vendettas. The Musket Wars resulted in the depopulation of Central and Southern Luzon (with up to a third of the population dying as a direct or indirect consequence of the wars), and resulted in extreme sociopolitical changes–including an increased complexity and scope of intertribal alliances. The wars, while destructive, led to the emergence of factors favoring indigenous state formation, culminating in the establishment of the Kingdom of Luzon by Maria Luwalhati the Great.

The Luzonians began acquiring European muskets shortly following the Santos Expedition. However, the musket was not unknown to the Luzonians, and according to contemporary European accounts, Luzonian warriors outside of Luzon were witnessed wielding them. While gunpowder weapons, in the form of guns such as the Lantaka, were relatively widespread, firearms were not often used in battles. Initially, muskets were used primarily for hunting. The first battle in which a Luzonian force used muskets recorded by Portuguese explorers occurred in 1529, when the Datu Pagsakop of Tangway (the father of the more famous Maria Luwalhati), fought against the forces of Datu Bugna of Kawit. Despite being outnumbered ten to one, and struggling to load/reload the muskets, the forces of Kawit were defeatedly. Soon after, Portuguese records contained notes of frequent battles between the barangay. The victorious barangay often took captives, and enslaved them. Initially, the Luzonians traded goods such as resin, beeswax, and wine with the Portuguese; later, the Luzonians began trading cash crops such as sugarcane and rice in exchange for muskets. Vanquished populations were often put to work to cultivate cash crops, rather than being exterminated.

Many smaller barangay, to avoid being ousted by larger, more powerful barangay, began allying with one another. This led to the emergence of larger and larger bayan–with some barangay uprooting themselves and coalescing into a larger, often fortified settlement. Prior to this period, the settlements of Manila and Tondo were alone in the region for having thousands of inhabitants; by the end of the Musket Wars, settlements in the region–while being more spaced–were larger and more nucleated. With the introduction of Catholicism, some datus (especially in coastal areas engaged with trade) began converting to curry the favor of the Portuguese. Some of these converted datus also provided a religious justification for the destruction of their pagan or Muslim rivals. By the mid-1530s, the “Musket trade” had become a very large and lucrative one, and constituted a significant chunk of Portuguese activity in the region; a 1538 account from Portuguese missionary named Justinus recorded a Portuguese merchant party trading 300–500 muskets for 300 tons of refined sugar–while this transaction would be an outlier, it demonstrated the importance of muskets to the natives.

Prior to the introduction of the musket, most warfare was done in melee. Some warriors were armed with projectile weapons like bows and arrows, or blow-guns. When the musket was first introduced, it was used as a shock weapon–enabling traditional weapons to be used to great effect against a demoralized enemy. With the more widespread adoption of the musket, warriors began fighting in volley’s–a technique that was acquired from the Portuguese and Spaniards, who were seen by the Luzonians fighting in the pike-and-shot formation. Luzonian muskets were of poor-quality, and were comparatively short-barelled compared to their European counterparts. Among some tribes, there was a division of labor between the sexes, in which the men fired the muskets, while the women reloaded them. Eventually, the Luzonians acquired knowledge of manufacturing their own muskets–by this point, the main problem was the availability of iron and of powder or shot.

Establishment

Princess Luwalhati rallying troops by 20th century artist An Chihau

By 1560, the barangay of Tangway, located in modern-day Kawit City, had emerged as a major power in the Manila Bay Region. Tangway was one of the settlements recorded by the Santos Expedition, and was one of the earliest settlements to engage in extensive trade with the Portuguese. Tangway’s chief, Datu Pagsakop, was involved in the earliest recorded battle using muskets (Battle of Kawit). Datu Pagsakop also converted to Catholicism, presumably to further his relations with the Portuguese and acquire their trust. As a result, consorts (including the mother of Maria Luwalhati) and his followers were also baptized and adopted Christian names. Pagsakop himself acquired the Christian name Salomonis, the latinization of “Suleiman”–a common name in the region. The early adoption of muskets favored Tangway, which rose from obscurity to a major force within a generation. Circa 1545, a battle was allegedly fought between Tangway and the combined forces of Maynila and Tondo (Battle of Puting Ilog). This battle arose from a dispute over Pagsakop’s right to use the title “Rajah”, which would imply him to be the equal to Rajah Ache and Lakan Dula–the chiefs of Manila and Tondo, respectively. Ache was a Muslim, which incentivized the Portuguese to intervene on behalf of Tangway. A small Portuguese squadron fired guns at Maynila’s fortifications, while Tangway warriors under Pagsakop’s command fought a numerically-larger force against a riverbank (the actual location of the battle is disputed). As Rajah Ache’s forces were less adept at musket tactics, Pagsakop won. The victory affirmed Tangway’s new status as a regional power, and upset the previous balance of power. To prevent Ache or Dula from pursuing revenge against him, Pagsakop agreed to take in a relative of Ache (a niece or a daughter) as a consort, and to sign a blood compact (sanduguan) guaranteeing peace in the region.

By the arrival of the Ferreira Expedition (1555), Tangway grew to a settlement of 3,000–5,000 inhabitants, and was surrounded by a palisade on raised earthworks. The head of the Ferreira Expedition, Lucio Ferreira, became a trusted friend of Pagsakop. Pagsakop granted the expedition’s priest to construct a church and establish a regional diocese (the predecessor of the Archdiocese of Manila), which had nominal jurisdiction over not only Tangway’s barangay, but the entirety of Luzon. This marked the beginning of the Catholic Church in Luzon, as a formal institution. The formal establishment of the Church in Luzon hastened conversion. Oral tradition during this period is influenced by mass conversion to Catholicism, as it begins incorporating Catholic motifs such as the Virgin Mary or solar miracles. Abrupt shifts in tone and embellishments can thus be used to discern an approximate date for oral literature. Despite this, there was a chronic lack in priests. There was perhaps a total of 200 foreign priests operating in the Manila Bay Region–or one priest per thousand inhabitants. As a result, a seminary was founded to train priests of native ancestry. Nevertheless, the chronic lack of priests led to the flourishing of doctrinal and liturgical syncreticism and heterodoxy; this distinct form of Tondolese Catholicism developed and persisted until the 19th century. Pagsakop’s enthusiasm for christianization is noted in contemporary accounts of him. A description of a Portuguese priest named Alphonsus states that “the King of Luçon, Lord Solimão Pagsacop [sic], is a fair and just leader. His enthusiasm and love for Christ has no parallel both here in the Indies and among the Indians of the New World”.

When Pagsakop died, he was succeeded by his 20-year old daughter, Maria Luwalhati (b. 1540). Maria Luwalhati was a young, energetic ruler and despite her young age, she was an accomplished orator and warrior–having accompanied his father in past raids and battles.

According to Tagalog oral tradition, particularly the epic Ang Mga Kasaysayan (lit. “The Histories”), a written compilation of oral stories as well as an account of Maria Luwalhati and her accomplishments, Maria was destined from birth to become the great leader of the Tagalog people. There are two narratives. According to the first narrative, it was prophesied that a child born with a twin-snake would unite the island of Luzon into a single kingdom. Pagsakop’s Chief Consort Maningning was expecting, and eventually gave birth to a healthy baby girl–who was also born with a twin-snake. Upon finding out that Maria Luwalhati was the prophesied great leader of the Tagalogs, she became a binukot–that is, a girl secluded from age 3 or 4 until marriageable age (12–15 years old). During her seclusion, she was taught the arts (dancing, singing), oral history, politics and the martial arts. When she was 13, it was decided that Maria Luwalhati, would not be married off, but would instead accompany her father in raids and battles to give her experience. When her father Pagsakop died, the Blessed Virgin Mary appeared to her in front of the people; the Virgin then gave her the divine mission to “cleanse the soil of the infidels” (referring to the Moros). Thereafter, Maria Luwalhati formally established the Kingdom of Luzon, and was coronated the “Queen of Luzon” (Reina de Luçon) by the Portuguese.

A second version of the narrative exists, which contains more Christian motifs. Allegedly, before she was born, a “holy woman” identified with the Virgin Mary appeared to Hara Maningning to announce her birth. Later, when she was 13 she began having visions from various saints–such as Saint Michael, the Blessed Virgin Mary, and Joan Arc. She was given the divine task of expelling the Muslims from area, and establishing a Christian state spanning Luzon. When Pagsakop died, his soul left his body and went into Heaven. Thereafter, the sun behaved erratically–changing colors and shape. A voice then came from the sky, which announced her as the “Queen of Luzon”. The events of this second narrative, which follows the first narrative in the Ang Kasaysayan, is corroborated by contemporary oral histories and by European accounts. Despite the ouvert embellishment and its elaboration of the first narrative’s preexisting Christian motifs, historians do not discount the historicity of the second narrative, and believe it to be contemporaneous with the first. It is notable that both narratives show a mixing of pre-Christian mythology (with the twin-snake of particular importance, as it is considered an auspicious omen) and of Christian elements introduced by Portuguese proselytization. Historians interpret the inclusion of Christian motifs as possible political propaganda–providing a religious justification for Maria Luwalhati’s claim of sovereignty.

Maria Luwalhati was coronated on March 26, 1560–the date of Easter. The Portuguese recognized her sovereignty over the entirety of Luzon–however, this was not initially recognized by other chiefs in the region. After her succession, Maria Luwalhati and her council of chiefs made plans to unite the Tagalog people. Maria also had allies among the Portuguese: the head of the Ferreira expedition, Lucio Ferreira, and Nicholas “Olhão” Silva, became close friends and political advisors to Maria Luwalhati. The latter even became Maria’s court favorite, and settled in Luzon and married a native wife. The use of Western weapons and the employment of Western advisors are thought to be instrumental in the successful unification of Luzon.

Just three days later, in March 29, 1560, Maria Luwalhati announced a campaign to unify the Tagalogs (who occupied central and southern Lusung), starting with the conquest of the Manila Bay Region–which contained the rival barangay of Maynila and Tondo. Maria led an army of 5,000 men–including 2,000 musketeers–to face off the leaders of Maynila and Tondo. At the time, Maynila was led by Rajah Matanda, and Tondo by Rajah Dula. The forces of Luwalhati and Matanda and Dula met at July 4, at the Battle of Sapang Masikip. At first, the amassed forces of Tondo and Maynila were able to stave off Maria Luwalhati’s forces. However, by the third day, a storm had caused the creek in which they were fighting in to flood–thus destroying the enemy camp, which was situated in a lower-lying area. Luwalhati then instructed her gunmen to fire at the enemy, which were unable to flee in the midst of floodwater and debris. Rajah Matanda and Rajah Dula, who were much older than Luwalhati, agreed to capitulate to her. Luwalhati decided to spare their lives, and that of her allies. However, she pressured them and their noblemen to convert to Catholicism–possibly to demonstrate her zeal to her Portuguese benefactors.

One of Dula’s sons, Dula II (also referred to as Batang Dula “Child Dula” to differentiate him from his father), fled north with a portion of his father’s men to Pampanga. Here, he met with the Pampangan chief Tarik Sulayman, and explained his predicament. Sulayman agreed to help Dula II, hoping to use his pedigree as a son of a paramount chief to help unify the Pampangan peoples under his sway. The “Pampangan War”, as noted in Luçonian records and Portuguese accounts, lasted until 1565. Notable battles included the Battle of Bangkusay, and the conclusive Battle of Makabebe–in which both Batang Dula and Tarik Sulayman were killed. The death of Tarik Sulayman led to the collapse of the Pampangan Confederation; the suppression of the Pampangans and their Tagalog allies led to the de facto establishment of the Kingdom of Luzon. Within five years, the territory under the dominion of Queen Maria had expanded from the city of Tangway and its environs, to the Manila Bay Delta–and further inland into Central Luzon. Maria Luwalhati continued her conquests into southern Luzon (the region of Kumintang) and the eastern shores of Lake Bayi. The Ang Kasaysayan stress the “voluntary” nature of her conquests–convincing chiefs to submit to her authority, rather than outright conquest. While a skilled orator and charismatic character, Luwalhati probably also utilized military intimidation to coerce the chiefs into accepting her authority. In midst of her continued campaigns to unity the Tagalog people, she married Salonga–son of her erstwhile rival Rajah Dula–in 1563. Salonga was baptized and given the Christian name “Filipe”. The marriage succeeded the marriage of Maria’s favorite Nicholas Silva to noblewoman Alexandra Maliwanagmata, which supposedly devastated her in spite of her ostensible approval.

By circa 1575, the subjugation of southern and central Luzon (excluding Bicol) had been complete. Maria Luwalhati is said to be a tactful and wise queen, and is credited with being the main architect of the Kingdom. She forcibly converted the entire population under her rule into Catholicism. Due to the forced nature of the conversion, however, folk elements such as the veneration of ancestors and lesser spirits, remained–persisting even today. Many chiefs accepted Catholicism, though viewed native religious practices under the veneer of Folk Catholicism. She closely mirrored the institutions and structures of Portugal–to the effect of employing Portuguese (missionaries, merchants, sailors) as government advisors. At the central level, she enlarged the royal court, and established a semiannual assembly comprised of all barangay chiefs known as the Pulongan. She also established a basic administrative system, which consisted of three tiers: the province–led by a governor or katiwala “trustee” (usually a close relative), who was in charge of taxation and labor/military mobilization; the bayan–led by a pangulong datu (usually translated as “first chief”); and the barangay–led by a datu. She is also credited with the promulgation of a codified law code (Kataas-taasang Batas ng Lupa “Supreme Law of the Land”), and a system of taxation and conscription, which vastly enhanced the power of the nascent Luzonese state.

Early on, the Luzonian state was challenged by the Spanish–who had their own colonial ambitions in the region. This was in spite of Portuguese presence and claims in the region. There were two major naval battles (1571 and 1575) that occurred in Manila Bay. Both battles were repulsed by the Luzonians’ superior firepower, as the Spanish by this point still failed to solidify their control over their portion of the archipelago. The Battle of Legazpi (1578) led to the destruction of Fort Legazpi in present-day Bicol, thus thwarting Spanish attempts at colonizing Luzon, and leading to a implicit partition of the Tondolese archipelago between an independent state based in the north, and the Spanish East Indies based in the south. The 1580 Rossi Expedition led to the formal recognition of the Luzonian state by the Spanish, who positivey noted the Luzonians’ earnest conversion into Catholicism.

Maria Luwalhati died in 1604, at the age of 64. She was succeeded by her eldest son Andre Matapang (b. 1570).

Kingdom of Tungning

The mid-17th century painting The Portrait of Koxinga

In 1662, Zheng Chenggong (known in the West as Koxinga, derived from Guoxingye 國姓爺) invaded the Tondolese archipelago. He invaded the provinces of Ilocos and Pangasinan with little resistance, and promptly settled 30,000 of his soldiers there. The next year however, Koxinga died due to malaria, with his son Zheng Jing assuming leadership over the scattered Ming royalist forces. In 1664, Zheng Jing defeated a combined Qing-Dutch fleet, allowing him to resume the conquest of the Tondolese archipelago. From 1664–1667, Zheng Jing placed all of Luzon and Mindoro under Chinese rule. Despite the Tondolese armies' better armament (as the majority of Luzonese warriors wielded muskets), the lack of roads and an inferior navy prevented them from responding hastily to the Chinese threat. The 1665 Battle of Manila ended in a decisive Chinese victory; nevertheless Chinese military tacticians viewed the Tondolese' musket tactics with great esteem - later influencing the Southern Ming's decision to emulate European-style line infantry. The capture of Manila led to Raja TBD accepting the nominal vassalage of the Ming Emperor. As a result, a succession crisis erupted between his three sons, which was later put down with Chinese aid.

From 1662 to 1683, Tondo was under the indirect rule of the Kingdom of Tungning based on Formosa. It was ruled under the tusi system, with the Ministry of War supervising all relations with the Tondolese Raja and his vassal chiefs. While the Raja retained much of his autonomy and powers, he relinquished supreme military command to an appointed military governor. The Chinese encouraged the cultivation of rice and sugarcane, the first to feed the royalist armies, and the second to trade with the Europeans. They also created massive saltworks in order to acquire another source of government revenue. Substantial demographic changes occured with the invasion of Chinese; the population of Pangasinan was displaced, and the natives moved further upriver to occupy the upper Agno basin. Many Ilocanos fled to the Cagayan Valley, where they were free of Chinese rule. These population movements were known as the Great Luzonian Migrations (1662–1750). In addition, intermarriage between Chinese men and native women further changed regions' ethnic composition; some even resorted to bridenapping or wife-sharing due to the lack of marriageable women due to the lopsided gender ratio of the Chinese settlers.

By 1676, the reconquest of mainland China became increasingly a fever dream, and in 1680, Ming royalists were driven off the mainland entirely with the Qing conquest of Xiamen, Quemoy, and the Pescadores. In 1683, the island of Formosa fell to Qing forces, prompting Zheng Keshuang, the remnants of the Ming House of Zhu, and thousands of Han Chinese to evacuate to the Tondolese archipelago. The sudden influx of 150,000–300,000 Chinese further aggravated relations with the natives, with the Chinese comprising a majority in the coastal parts of Pangasinan and Ilocos, and a large minority in the Manila Bay Region (particularly in Bulakan). The coastal settlement of Kota Selurong (also called Manila) was renamed Xijing (“New Capital”), and grew to a population of 30,000 inhabitants. This figure already dwarfed the population of the long-established city of Tondo (20,000) just a few miles north. A three-way conflict emerged, which was fought between the anti-Chinese natives, and the Chinese split between pro-Zhu and pro-Zheng factions.

Southern Ming Dynasty

Flight to the Tondolese archipelago

By 1683, there was tension between the House of Zheng and the House of Zhu. Already as early as 1676, Zheng Jing largely abandoned the pretense of restoring the Ming Dynasty and even sought peace with the Qing as an autonomous fiefdom. Zheng Keshuang viewed Qing conquest of the islands - just as they did in Formosa - was inevitable, and sought to eliminate the House of Zhu as they were a potential liability. In 1684, Zheng Keshuang declared himself "Prince of Formosa" and accepted Qing suzerainty. He adopted the Manchu queue to symbolize genuine submission to the Qing. This move was widely unpopular, as the adoption of the queue violated the Confucian norm of maintaining long hair. Zheng Keshuang attempted to rally support amongst his former soldiers. At the same time, the House of Zhu reorganized itself under the leadership of Zhu Jincheng, an eleventh-generation of the famed Hongwu Emperor and the grandson of Zhu Shugui, who committed suicide during the Qing takeover of Formosa. Zheng Keshuang attempted to take over Xining, and upon failing to do so, fled to Manila (the other name for Tondo) and entrenched himself there. The brief conflict ended the following year, when a 30,000 man force besieged Manila and reduced its fortress.

Zhu Jincheng's victory over Zheng Keshuang, and his subsequesent coronation in Xijing led to the nominal reestablishment of the Ming dynasty. Zhu Jincheng adopted the era name Wutai (武泰), meaning "Exalted Martial". While just 21 years old, Zhu Jincheng already attained massive popular support as he embodied the "perfect soldier". His tall, muscular frame and excellent oratory gave him an intimidating aura. As a child, he was educated in the martial arts and rigorously studied the works of Sun Tzu and other famous military tacticians and strategists. While he was an excellent commander, he forbade soldiers under his command from looting and pillaging, or comitting rape. In 1686, Zhu Jincheng married Dayang Luwalhati, the daughter and only surviving child of Raja TBD. The marriage was a strategic one, as he hoped the marriage would ameliorate the poor relations between the native chiefs and the Chinese invaders. Nevertheless, numerous anti-Chinese rebellions would break out, including TBD from 16XX-16XX, TBD from 17XX–17XX, and the last major one in 17XX.

The Wutai Emperor ruled the Southern Ming until his death in 1715. He presided over a multitude of far-reaching reforms. Chinese-style administration was introduced, with Tondo organized as a province of China while all native Tondolese became Ming subjects. The archipelago was officially referred to as either 大南 (Dànán/Toalam) - the "Great South", or 大境 (Dàjìng/Tāikéng) - the "Great Frontier". Public administration was handled by the Three Provincial Commissions, with the Six Ministries (except the Ministry of War) having a reduced, largely symbolic role in governance. Tondo was divided into XX prefectures, which were led by prefects. Prefectures were further divided into departments, which were further divided into counties. The barangay was co-opted as the smallest administrative unit, with the county essentially replacing the bayan. The datu retained lordship over their barangay as well as their land and dependents; they also continued to exercise most of their judicio-administrative powers. The datu also reserved the right to pass down their titles and property to their children or other family membres. The sinification of the indigenous nobility was rapid, due to the long-established trading relationship between the archipelago and China. Indigenous nobility wore Chinese and Japanese brocades, used porcelain, and were familiar with Chinese tea ceremony, even prior to Chinese conquest. The power of the barangay chiefs was checked by an appointed county magistrate, who served triennial terms and were not native to the area. In exchange for their cooperation, barangay chiefs were bestowed Chinese titles and tax exemptions. The Great Ming Code became the law, however customary law was applied in personal disputes - thus requiring arbitration from the datu (who was knowledgeable in local customary law) rather than the county magistrate. While lowland peoples were directly-administered, the tusi system previously used in Southwest China was used to govern highland peoples (such as the Igorot and Aeta) and Muslims. These chiefdoms were under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of War, rather than any one of the Provincial Commissions.

In regards to the economy, the Wutai Emperor demanded that all taxes be paid in silver - thus inducing the monetization and commercialization of the economy. There were three types of taxes: the land tax, the commercial tax levied on merchants, and various excise taxes. There was also corvée, which could be regarded as a tax on labor - this however, could be commuted with a head tax. Corvée labor was mainly used in public construction, in shipyards, or in government monopolies. Luzon was a relative backwater prior to the arrival of the Chinese. When the Chinese arrived, they encouraged local datu to cultivate sugarcane and rice for export. Later, tea was grown in the relatively-cool Ilocos and Cagayan regions, while sericulture using the tropical heat-tolerant Indian variety of mulberry was encouraged in Central Luzon. Initially, silk and tea were produced to fulfill native Chinese demands; however they were eventually produced for the export trade. Since the quantity of cotton grown was low, most fabrics were made out of abaca (also called Manila hemp) with the fine nipis weave being held in high esteem. In accordance with the government's militaristic policy, government monopolies on iron, salt, munitions, and shipbuilding were established to finance the creation of a large navy and army, which competed not only with Qing China, but European powers in the region like the Iberians and the Dutch.

Zhu Jincheng only had two wives. His second wife, Wang Aiguo, died without issue. His union with Zhu Lina produced nine children - but only one son, Zhu Guoliang. Zhu Guoliang was declared his successor early on, as Zhu Jincheng distrusted the collateral branches of the Zhu family. Zhu Guoliang took on the era name Yongtai (永泰) which meant "perpetual peace". The Yongtai Emperor consolidated the Southern Ming's rule over Tondo. He enforced the adoption of Chinese surnames, which facilitated census-taking and tax collection. Native nobility generally retained their surnames, while the majority of peasants adopted Chinese surnames. He also put down several anti-Chinese rebellions. The first was the 1716 Pangasinan Rebellion, which was led by a nobleman named Karandang Liqiang. The rebellion stemmed from the displacement of the Pangasinense people from their ancestral homelands in the Lingayen Gulf. About 40,000 people were involved in the uprising, however the Yongtai Emperor exercised clemency when he pardoned all of them. Other major rebellions were the Lihan Revolt (1721) and the Iloko Revolt (1725). Anti-Chinese rebellions were caused by resentment towards heavy taxes and the imposition of Chinese culture. Nevertheless, Chinese rule was never seriously threatened as these insurrections were regional in scope – due to the fragmentary nature of the island’s geography and ethnography.

The government was more concerned about external threats. The brief Sino-Spanish alliance in particular was a major cause of concern. Sino-Spanish relations turned hostile with the 1715 condemnation of Chinese ancestral rites and the subsequesent expulsion of Catholic clergy from China. The Kangxi Emperor hoped to mount a campaign against the Southern Ming, but was occupied by the consolidation of Qing rule and died before doing so - his successor, the Yongzheng Emperor, was more conservative and did not view the Southern Ming as a serious security threat. Due to Tondo's majority-Christian population, relations with the Spanish were inevitable. The Yongtai Emperor formalized a policy of tolerance towards Christianity - against the wishes of the country's Confucian scholar-gentry. He removed sections of the Great Ming Code that criminalized the practice of, or conversion to Christianity. He also continued to permit the operation of various Catholic orders in the country. Later, the Yongtai Emperor only allowed Jesuits to operate within Tondo, as they had a permissible attitude towards Chinese Confucian rites and native Folk Catholicism.

Demographic changes

Tondo’s population grew rapidly during the 18th century. Tondo’s population was 1.5 million in 1700. This quadrupled to 6 million by 1800, and grew another four-fold by 1900. This exceptional growth was part of the “paradox” of Southeast Asian population growth during the 18th–19th centuries, as these societies grew rapidly (with growth rates in excess of 1%) without undergoing demographic transition. In Tondo, this can be attributed to the peace following the unification of Luzon in the 16th century. The creation of a singular state spanning most of the island led to the reduction of intercommunal raids and feuds, which reduced excess male mortality. Slavery, which was widespread prior to regional unification, led to the disruption of or deferment from marriage, with about 30% of adults not marrying during the 16th century per Spanish sources; slavery was abolished under the influence of Christian ideals and due to sources of slaves (which shifted to less numerous highland tribes) being exhausted. These two factors led to the formation of more stable family units. It is also noted that corvée, which women were subjected to alongside men, also shortened the space between births. Tondolese women prior to the 20th century may have had 6–7 children during her lifetime, in spite of the age of first marriage for women being late for Asian standards (at 21) and the percentage of lifetime celibate women in the double digits.

Immigration, largely from China, also contributed to Tondolese population growth. By 1700, about a fifth of Luzon was Chinese. They formed majorities (>50%) in Kaboloan, Iloko, and southern Bulakan. They were a concentrated, urban minority. While they were majorities in the communities they resided in, the Chinese were ultimately unable to assimilate the islands (not like in Taiwan). The settlement of these regions led to the Great Migration, which spanned 1662–1750. This referred to multiple population movements in Luzon, with entire ethnic groups being uprooted. The Iloko people were displaced from their traditional homeland and migrated east - to the Kalayan Valley. They, in-turn, displayed native peoples such as the Gaddang, who fled upland. In response to the settlement of the coast, groups such as the Kaboloan and Kapampangan peoples, fled inland. The Great Migration to an extent, also included the resettlement of Chinese and their sinified allies (principally Tagalogs) inland or in highland areas, such as the economically lucrative Kalayan Valley. Nevertheless, frequent intermarriage with native women (which initially included forced marriages and bridenappings) and migration into newly-established cities led to the erosion/dispersal of the Chinese population. By 1800, about 10% of the total population was Chinese. At the time of the de jure establishment of the Empire of Tondo, this figure was about 5%. Today, only about 3% of Tondolese identify solely as Sino-Tondolese, with this population being dispersed across the archipelago; however, up to 80% of Tondolese have at least partial Chinese ancestry.

Tondolese Golden Age

Main articles: Tondolese Golden Age, Dawu Emperor

Official court portrait of the Dawu Emperor..

The Tondolese Golden Age is a revisionist concept born out of early Tondolese nationalism. This golden age encompassed the reigns of Zhu Longwei, who ruled as the Dawu Emperor, and Zhu Mingyu, who ruled as Empress Tiancewansui. This period was marked by peace and prosperity, acculturation between the Chinese and the native Luzonese, and foreign expansion.

When the Yongtai Emperor died in 1736, his son Zhu Longwei ruled as the Dawu Emperor. Just like his grandfather, the Dawu Emperor was the embodiment of a "perfect soldier". The Dawu Emperor promoted a policy of "military first" (先軍政治, Xiānjūn Zhèngzhì). The standing army at the start of Southern Ming was about 30,000; this tripled to about 100,000 with the crackdown of tax evasion and the more effective administration of the lowlands. The Dawu Emperor structured the country's economy around the Southern Ming's military activities. He increased corvée obligations and allocated most laborers to government shipyards or munitions plants. He also allowed peasants to pay taxes in kind, specifically grain and cloth, which were used to feed and clothe soldiers. He encouraged the cultivation of cash crops and manufacturing, as the income gained from this funded the construction of numerous gun foundries, shipyards, and arsenals. His most important reforms were perhaps tactical. He adopted line infantry and trained troops under European infantry tactics. This made the Tondolese Army the most modern in Asia until the late nineteenth century. Other modifications involved changes in standard armament, such as the replacement of the matchlock by the flintlock and the outphasing of polearms entirely. The Dawu Emperor was inspired by European military treatises such as A Discourse of Military Discipline (1634) by Gerat Barry and Dell'arte della guerra by Niccolò Machiavelli, which he acquired from Jesuits in his court. He was also impressed by native Tondolese musket tactics, with his predecessors establishing a "Bird Gun Regiment" comprised exclusively of musket-wielding Luzonian warriors. His reforms proved decisive in putting down highland rebellions and fending the Southern Ming's position against the Spanish and the Dutch.

The 1740s was a time of constant military campaigning on part of the Dawu Emperor. The rapid "modernization" of his armed forces emboldened him to resume conflict with Qing China. However, many of his soldiers remained inexperienced with the use of firearms - whereas native conscripts, which were used as auxiliaries for the most part, had a long-established musket tradition. The 1740 First Taiwan Campaign was a failure, with a storm reducing the 30,000-strong expedition by a third. Southern Ming forces performed poorly due to a combination of low morale, lack of martial discipline, and poor command. Depleted provisions eventually forced the abortion of the campaign - afterwards the expedition's forces retreated to Aparri in Cagayan. Afterwards, the Dawu Emperor incorporated native conscripts as front-line units rather than auxiliaries. Nevertheless, the failure of the First Taiwan Campaign led to doubts of the effectiveness of Emperor Dawu's reforms. The Qianlong Emperor took this as a sign of weakness, and mounted an invasion of Tondo via Pangasinan in 1742. The expedition involved 300 ships and 20,000 soldiers. Despite having less ships, the Southern Ming's use of European artillery proved decisive. The Qing's infantrymen also were ineffective against Southern Ming musket fire. In 1743, the Southern Ming Court saw renewed confidence and embarked on a more successful second expedition to Taiwan. This time, the integrated Southern Ming forces proved much more organized and disciplined. Southern Ming forces invaded the Pescadores in 1744, holding it for a year. The Qing responded to the Southern Ming occupation of Taiwan by dispatching Shi Feihong - the grandson of the famous Admiral Shi Lang, who generations prior defected from the Ming loyalist cause and retook the Kingdom of Tungning. Ironically, Shi Feihong defected to the Southern Ming. Taiwan was occupied until 1753, when it was deemed too much of a financial burden. Until then, the Southern Ming used the island to conduct coastal raids across Southern China - sometimes even abducting prominent officials as ransom, or transporting anti-Manchu refugees to the Tondolese mainland.

In 1748, the Dawu Emperor ordered the invasion of the Spanish East Indies, sparking the Third Castilian War. Visayas and Mindanao were swiftly-conquered. Most of the Spanish population fled to the Caroline Islands, with those remaining massacred. The population of Visayas, which were resettled into colonial reductions in the late 16th century, were placed under direct rule just like Luzon. Like the datus of Luzon, the former cabeza de barangay retained much of their social distinction and their judicio-administrative powers, with the duties and reach of the county magistrate being comparable to the gobernadorcillo. The Hispanicized nobility of Spanish Visayas, the Principalia, were forced however to adopt Chinese dress. Meanwhile, colonial town squares were destroyed then rebuilt in a systematic effort to extinguish Hispanic culture. Nevertheless, Hispanic culture remained strong in the Zamboanga Peninsula, perhaps enabed by its relative isolation and the influx of refugees from other parts of the former Spanish East Indies. The Dawu Emperor extended his predecessors' policy of tolerance towards Christians by allowing Jesuits to administer religious missions, though other Catholic orders were expelled. Relations with the Spanish were later normalized in 1763, with the Spanish administering the ports of Zamboanga City and Basilan Island under the suzerainty of the Southern Ming. The Third Castilian War was remarkable in that it saw the victory of an upstart Asian power over a long-established European empire; contemporary European observers remarked on the modernity of Southern Ming forces, which comprehensively-used European firearms and artillery despite utilizing Chinese ships.

Like his predecessors, Zhu Longwei had an accomodationist policy towards the native Luzonians. Asides from his native Hokkien, he also acquired Mandarin, Tagalog, Kapampangan, Spanish, and Latin. He held native oral tradition in high esteem, and ordered them to be translated into Chinese. While he encouraged literacy in Chinese, as it was the language of law and administration, he also encouraged literacy in the native languages and the adoption of the Dongduzi (Tondoji) script, which was standardized during his reign. Nevertheless, the native nobility were dismissive of the Emperor, as he was the son of a mere concubine. This influenced his decision to take his third-cousin, Ladyangbata Caihong, as his primary wife. As Empress Consort, she exerted a great deal of influence on politics, and served as the government's informal liaison to the native nobility. Despite being the most high-ranking wife and his most favored wife, Ladyangbata Caihong was regarded poorly by members of the court due to her failure to produce a son. She was also regarded as a negative influence on the Emperor, as she was Christian. Nevertheless, their eldest daughter together, Zhu Mingyu, was the Emperor's favorite child. When she was 22, she was wed off to Zhu Zhangmin, a descendant of Zhu Honghuan (son of the Genyin Emperor) and thus her distant cousin. As unions between two people of the same paternal lineage (clan) were regarded as incestuous, Zhu Mingyu was adopted by her maternal uncle prior and took on the surname of "Ladyangbata". When Zhu Longwei died in 1753, he willed the throne to Zhu Mingyu's infant son, Zhu Wangfang (b. 1751), who became the Jintong Emperor. As he was not of age at the time, Zhu Mingyu became regent and thus de facto ruler of the Southern Ming.

Zhu Mingyu's newfound powers brought her under the contempt of some members of the court, including her elder half-brother Zhu Bingwen and Zhu Aiguo. Together with their court allies, they orchestrated the 1754 Incident, in which a tree in the Southern Palace supposedly was marked by "the throne has lost heaven's favor". There was panic among the Confucian elite, who attributed the dynasty's apparent loss of the Mandate of Heaven to their tolerance of Christianity and native paganism. Later that year, a mob stormed the Southern Palace in an attempt to overthrow the Empress Regent. Zhu Bingwen, ridden by guilt and fearing the lie could topple the dynasty, disclosed the conspiracy to the Empress Regent and her court. Zhu Mingyu had Zhu Aiguo and his extended family executed, while Zhu Bingwen was spared and would become a close ally of his half-sister. Per his suggestion, Zhu Mingyu shared her regency with Zhu Zhangmin. Despite being demoted to a co-ruler, Zhu Zhangmin was a pliable man with little interest in politics. In 1757, both he and the Jintong Emperor contracted malaria and died. While Zhu Mingyu bore two other sons with Zhu Zhangmin, they died in infancy, with her surviving children all daughters. From this year onwards, Zhu Mingyu ruled as Empress Regnant, and adopted the era name of Tiancewansui (天冊萬歲), meaning "heaven-conferred legitimacy". Empress Tiancewansui's reign was never seriously challenged in spite of her sex, as she was still the daughter of an emperor and she declared her intention to bequeath the throne to someone from the line of Zhu Bingwen - thereby ensuring there was an unbroken line of paternal descent, and appeasing the more conservative elements of court.

Reign of Empress Tiancewansui

Portrait of Empress Tiancewansui

The Southern Ming reached its apogee during the reign of Empress Tiancewansui, which was marked by exuberant wealth and martial splendor. The government and military were ruthlessly efficient, creating a stable civil society and establishing the Southern Ming as a major power. While tensions with the Spanish never faded away, the Seven Years’ War and growing unrest in its American colonies sapped Spanish strength. The period also saw the apogee of Sino-Tondolese culture, and foreshadowed the development of Euro-Tondolese culture in the 19th century. While two of the three past Empress Consorts were Christian, Empress Tiancewansui was the first monarch to be a practicing Catholic. The christianization of Tondolese society was evident in the consolidation and enforcement of Christian orthodoxy and the construction of new churches with Chinese and Iberian elements (known as Tondolese Earthquake Baroque). Continued observance of Chinese Confucian rituals, and liberality towards Folk Catholicism, however, would later precipitate into conflict with Iberian clergy.

Upon ascending to the throne, Empress Tiancewansui initially worked to further consolidate the rule of the Southern Ming on the Tondolese Islands. She encouraged the migration of the Chinese, who were still largely concentrated in the regions of Pangasinan, Ilocos, and Bulakan, into migrating into cities further inland as well as cities in the newly-conquered regions of Visayas and Mindanao. This helped the economic integration of Central Luzon, which was a relative backwater at the time, into the national economy. She also strengthened the system of governance on the islands by enlarging civil service, which was promoted as a means of ameliorating one’s social status. Due to a general lack of officials, in 1766, she controversially decreed that merchants and the family of merchants were not longer barred from civil service examinations. Furthermore, starting 1767, civil service examinations were to occur annually rather than triennially. Due to this, the number of government officials would surge to about 30,000 by 1800 - or about 0.5% of the population, many-times higher proportionally than even during the height of civil service during the Song Dynasty. Nevertheless, the military service examinations continued to retain much prestige, to a level that was atypical of other Chinese dynasties. This could be attributed to the background of the Chinese settlers, many of whom being poor soldiers and their families. Despite not being barred from doing so, the native nobility largely refrained from participating in civil service.

While rule over former Spanish Visayas was largely secure, rule over large parts of Mindanao and Borneo were not, as these regions remained de facto independent throughout Spanish rule. Furthermore, the Portuguese and Dutch also established forts in the southern part of Borneo to safeguard their regional interests. The lease of Zamboanga and Basilan to the Spanish in 1763, as part of the Treaty of Zamboanga normalizing relations between the Southern Ming and Spain, meant that the Southern Ming controlled no substantial urban settlement in Mindanao. In 1765, an expedition was thus sent to Mindanao to survey the area for its population and potential resources. Despite attacks from Muslim Moro (or Hui) pirates, the expedition was largely successful. The expedition returned again to Mindanao the following year, though this time to pacify the de facto independent sultanates of Sulu and Maguindanao. By 1767, with minor Spanish aid, the region was placed under firm Southern Ming rule. Muslim Mindanao was governed under the tusi system used for highland tribes in Luzon. The Christianized north and the pagan east were placed under direct rule. The lack of sizeable urban settlements (Spanish colonial settlements like Ozamiz or Cagayan de Oro were too small, or suffered a decline following Chinese conquest) made projection into the region difficult. Attempts to establish a viable port in the Davao Gulf were thwarted until 1770, with the establishment of modern-day Davao City. The population and economy of Mindanao grew rapidly thereafter, with the introduction of intensive agriculture and immigration from Luzon and Visayas.

Borneo was under nominal Tondolese rule starting in 1748, with Tondo’s victory in the Third Castilian War. Nevertheless, Spanish colonial cities in Borneo were abandoned or destroyed following Spanish retreat. Asides from periodic patrols, the Southern Ming initially had no real presence in Borneo. In 1775, Empress Tiancewansui ordered the Campaign to Pacify the South, dispatching about 20,000 men and 100 ships to subdue the island. The Pacification of Borneo was declared “complete” by 1778, with the process being largely peaceful. Numerous sultanates and tribal chiefdoms were subjected under the tusi system of vassalage; there was, however, no large-scale organized opposition to Southern Ming rule. Unlike in Mindanao, the Southern Ming made no real effort to assert direct control over Borneo–either through administrative reorganization or large-scale settlement. While it was able to extract resources from Borneo as tribute, it remained sparsely populated and economically-undeveloped until the 19th century. Rather, Borneo’s real strategic importance laid in its use as a base of operations against European powers operating south.

The news of a female Empress regnant intrigued the equally vigorous Qianlong Emperor. The two had sent correspondances between each other, with the Tiancewansui Empress boasting of the Southern Ming’s naval prowess and claiming that the Southern Ming could “raid the port of Canton without a single man or vessel lost”. She also taunted him into invading the Tondolese Islands. In 1786, the anti-Qing Tiandihui Society was discovered in Taiwan. The society was founded by Lin Shuangwen. While the society was not intended to restore the Ming, it attracted lingering Ming royalist sentiments within Taiwan. It is unlikely that the Tiandihui Society was encouraged or funded by the Southern Ming, though they could possibly have known of its prior existence through espionage. Nevertheless, in 1787, the Qianlong Emperor declared an invasion of the Tondolese Islands, starting with a a 20,000-man expedition to capture the city of Aparri. The force was readily repulsed by the Southern Ming Navy. The Tiancewansui Empress retaliated with the invasion of Taiwan that same year–causing a humiliating defeat for the Qing at the Battle of the Taiwan Strait (1787). Taiwan was once again briefly occupied by the Southern Ming until 1791, while the Qing was preoccupied with the Nepalis (see Sino-Nepalese War) and with the Vietnamese. Nevertheless, the Taiwanese proved indifferent to Southern Ming rule (with the Sino-Tondolese viewed as foreigners) and retention of the island proved to be a fiscal drain. Southern Ming forces abandoned the island after a brief skirmish–Qing annals consider the outcome of the conflict as a “Qing victory”, while Tondolese records consider the war to be insignificant and an example of the Qing’s naval weakness.

The conquest of Mindanao and Borneo incorporated a Muslim element within the Southern Ming Dynasty. Initially, the Southern Ming displayed a policy of tolerance towards the “Hui” peoples–which encompassed anyone of an Abrahamic faith. Nevertheless, knowledge of Confucian philosophy continued to be crucial in social advancement. The Chinese policy of tolerance was welcomed by Mindanaoans and Borneans, who had a Muslim majority with a small (largely mixed) Hispano-Catholic minority. Many Crypto-Muslims were now free to practice their religion openly. By the mid-18th century, the demographic weight of Tondolese Catholics and their presence within the Imperial Household–culminating with the rule of the Tiancewansui Empress–led to the Christian religion gaining government preference. In 1790, a Bornean prince named Musa ibn Muhammad usurped the throne of the Bornean Kingdom and declared its independence (that is, he severed the tusi ties bounding him to the Empress). The court became concerned with the tenacity of the tusi system in Mindanao and especially Borneo: while the tusi chiefs in Luzon and Mindanao were bordered by densely-populated imperial territory, Borneo was relatively farflung from the capital and had no contiguous borders with an imperial territory. Despite Musa ibn Muhammad’s revolt being readily crushed, Tiancewansui decided to show clemency to him to show not provide a “martyr” to Borneo’s muslims. In regards to her Bornean vassals, Tiancewansui pursued a policy of cooperation (rather than direct rule) and sought to make them economically-dependent on trade with Tondo (usually exporting tropical goods to Manila, whence they would be reexported to foreign markets). Tiancewansui also established or repurposed ports as stop-stations and naval bases to support maritime activity in the area. As the native chiefdoms/principalities retained their autonomy, and unlike in Mindanao, faced no large-scale settlement, Muslim–Catholic conflict would be minimal until later in the 19th century.

By the late 18th century, Catholicism became further entrenched in the Tondolese Archipelago. There was a distinction, however, between the Catholics of former Spanish territories - who were more liturgically conservative, and the Catholics of Luzon - many of whom practiced Folk Catholicism and had a distinct history starting with Portuguese proselytization in the 16th century. Under Koxinga, the bishops of Luzonese dioceses were subject to government approval; under the Dawu Emperor, the bishops of Luzonese dioceses were appointed by secular authorities–a policy extended to the dioceses of Visayas. This resulted in a brief period of two Church of Tondo’s, with Manila being served by two titular archbishops: one appointed by the Chinese, and one recognized by the Papacy. Tiancewansui controversially repealed Dawu’s policy, though exercised supreme authority over clerical appointments. Nevertheless, controversies remained such as the laity’s rejection of Rome’s primacy; and practice of female ordination, native mystical traditions (which allegedly infuse Chinese, Buddhist philosophies and native shamanism), Confucian ancestal rites; and liberality towards heterodox forms of devotion and worship. Religious strife, stemming from the distance between clerical and lay devotion, developed into lay dissent. A notable example is the Manila Riots of 1799, in which a religious procession commemorating (yet unrecognized) folk saint-martyr Veronica Lim erupted into a religious riot, after a group of foreign clerics tried to stop the event.

Religious agitations, primarily in the form of a demand for a native church free from Roman influence, represented a destablising force in what was otherwise a thriving empire. Empress Tiancewansui’s reign ended with the consolidation of the Tondolese state, its command of its territory, and the peak of Tondo’s military (especially naval) prowess. Meanwhile, the nativization of the Sino-Tondolese and the sinification of Tondolese culture resulted in a period of acculturation and the mixing of Chinese and Austronesian Tondolese culture; Manila emerged as a major node in global trade as a result of globalization. Nevertheless, the death of Tiancewansui in 1802 and a series of weak successors led to the eruption of underlying conflicts–ethnic and religious.

Economy and culture during the Southern Ming

Prosperous Xijing by Li Zixuan

The Tondolese economy grew immensely throughout the 18th century, up until the mid-19th century. The cultivation of sugar, rice, abaca, tea, and silk all led to healthy and vibrant trade with the Europeans. In addition, manufactures such as textiles, porcelain, and glassware were also exported. This export trade had its roots during the Kingdom of Tungning period, with the Koxinga monarchs spearheading the cultivation of sugarcane and rice in the islands to fund the Southern Ming cause. Developments during the 18th century further bolstered the economy: the acquisition of Heidao/Pulong-Itim (the former Negros Island) led to a boom in sugarcane production, while the settlement of the mild-weathered Cagayan Valley facilitated the rise in tea production. In addition, sericulture was practiced by farmers in Central and Southern Luzon, with most peasant households in the region partaking in some stage of silk production. The mulberry species used as the naturalized Morus indica, as the Chinese variety was not used to the monsoonal climate and the hot temperatures. A native fiber crop known as abaca (or Manila hemp) was grown in Bicol, and was used in place of cotton as the textile of the masses. Chinese crafts such as lacquerware and porcelain were produced and exported too. Ming-style blue and white porcelain was produced, though new designs emerged. Another popular ceramic type was the "Manila Glass", which was a product of using European glassblowing methods.

Empress Tiancewansui facilitated economic development through the reduction of corvée obligations and allowing peasants to commute them to a capitation tax (which was to be paid in either taels or their equivalent value in cloth or grain). She also hired wage laborers in certain government industries that require skilled labor, though retained the extensive use of corvée labor in sectors such as shipbuilding and iron production. Restrictions on rent enabled tenant farmers to sell their surplus to local markets. Economic growth was accompanied by extensive urbanization: the population of Manila grew to 300,000 by 1800, and was 1 million at the time of Sierran conquest (1902). Using a threshold of 10,000, about 10% of the population lived in urban regions c. 1900, second only to Japan in Asia. The main two urban centers were the Manila Bay Area and the Pangasinan Bay Area; other urban included central Luzon and Cebu Island.

The economic boom was accompanied by the maturation of Sino-Tondolese culture. Chinese elements included opera, architecture, food and dress, and art. Tondolese opera, for example, developed from a synthesis of Hakka, Hokkiennese, and Cantonese opera traditions (reflecting the predominant elements in the Chinese settlement of Tondo). In regards for food and dress, while they retained their recognizably Chinese form, they were adapted to local material: nipis or bobu (薄布 lit. “thin cloth”), an indigenous textile art involving finely-weaved abaca or piña, was highly regarded and competed with silk; meanwhile, due to a difference in climate, many ingredients were substituted with local equivalents. Another example of acculturation is in naming customs. The Dawu Emperor imposed surnames onto the Tondolese population for census-taking. Prior to this, the majority of Tondolese had a native personal name and a baptismal name (if Catholic); many noblemen had epithets or names derived from their ancestors, with some of these becoming hereditary (effectively functioning as surnames). After the Dawu Emperor’s edict, most of the population had three names: a surname, a personal name, and a Catholic name. Only noblemen were allowed to have or retain a native surname (e.g., Matapang “strong”). While a personal name did not have to be Chinese (resulting in names such as Jia Marikit or Wang Malaki), by the mid-18th century, this became rare and most of the population adopted Chinese names as well. While the everyday use of Christian names had been in place since the late 16th century, it is only under the Southern Ming did Christian names displace native names in informal settings (Chinese names were preferred in legal documents and formal settings). Thus, a common name might be Sun Rixin Joseph/Sun Jitsin Joseph - comprised of a Chinese surname and personal name and a Christian name.

There was a unique case of triglossia in the Tondolese Islands. The official administrative language was Classical Chinese with Mandarin pronounciation, and officials (including the maginoo) were expected to be well-versed in the language. The lingua franca, and the language of vernacular literature, however, was Hokkien. This was because the majority of Chinese settlers came from Fujian. Other Chinese varieties such as Cantonese, Hakka, and Wu were spoke, but virtually disappeared by the 19th century. Native languages continued to flourish. The most prominent of these were Tagalog, Ilocano, Pangasinense, Bisaya, and Malay. Tagalog in particular, became the second or third language of many in Central and South Luzon.

Urbanization, economic development, and rising literacy led to a “boom” in literature, especially novels written in the vernacular. The Four Classics of Tondolese Literature could be dated to the mid-to-late 18th century. These are the Romance of the Great Frontier (大境演義, Dàjìng Yǎnyì), Mountain Sanctuary (山避難所, Shān Bìnàn Suǒ), Voyage to the Fatherland (祖國遊記, Zǔguó Yóujì), and The Little Plum (小賢梅, Xiǎo Xián Méi). While displaying formal characteristics inherited from Chinese literary tradition, contemporary Tondolese literature–as exemplified by the Four Classics–was reflective of a shift in cultural values and intellectual concerns, and a greater identification with Tondo over China. Furthermore, they manipulative narrative conventions in an ironic or satirical manner, to go against their superficial meaning. The Great Frontier is a historical novel set in the Ming Retreat to Tondo (1662–1684), while it laments the loss of mainland China to the Qing, its characters also look forward to the establishment of a new and ideal society in the Tondolese Islands. Mountain Sanctuary, which centers around a secret Ifugao village during the Great Migration, initially portrays its Sino-Tondolese protagonists as heros; in the second half of the novel, their actions are exposed as selfish and brutal, in contrast to the forgiving and accomodating nature of the native villagers they had previously terrorized. Voyage to the Center of the World is an alternative history novel centered around a fictionalized Zhu Longwei’s (the Dawu Emperor) successful reconquest of mainland China; as he penetrates deeper into China, Zhu Longwei increasingly doubts his affinity with China and longs for Tondo–in the end, the loss of Tondo to the Spanish is regarded as a tragedy. The Little Plum, which gained noteriety for its explicit erotic scenes, is also known for using in media res (with the novel beginning near the end of the plot). The novel centers around a woman named Xiao Xianmei, who is initially portrayed as a lecherous and wanton woman who gained status by successive marriages to rich and powerful men; this is subverted by her later portrayal as a (young) victim of male sexuality, with the purpose of these advantageous marriages being to improve her young son’s future. Some analysts consider The Little Plum a critique of socioeconomic immobility (or even the status of women) in contemporary Tondolese society, as the half-Chinese half-Pangasinense Xiao Xianmei, regardless of her individual talents and merit, can only ascend the social ladder through offering her sexual services to Chinese officials. Due to a general protonationalist sentiment, some scholars classify the Four Classics as non-European examples of Romantic fiction, despite having origins in Chinese rather than Western literary convention.

In addition to the mixing of Chinese and Tondolese culture, there was an openness to foreign cultures. Cultural interactions between the Southern Ming and Europe laid the basis of 19th century “Euro-Tondolese” culture. Asides from the aforementioned “Manila glass” technique, artistic elements from Europe were also adopted. The Baroque movement was particularly influential, due to the influence of the Jesuits. Jesuit courtiers introduced baroque techniques such as chiaroscuro, which were incorporated into Chinese painting tradition: contemporary paintings displayed European realism while simultaneously utilizing Chinese mediums and techniques (e.g., use of silk scrolls, oblique perspective). Jesuit courtiers also were responsible for the introduction of European musical tradition. Tondolese Earthquake Baroque, while having origins in the Tondolese-Portuguese architectural tradition, was elaborated due to further Spanish influence, with stone-churches built in this style even in small rural towns.

Decline

After the death of Empress Tiancewansui in 1802, the throne went to Zhu Rongzu (b. 1779), who took on the era name “Jianyi” (建義, meaning “establishing justice”). Zhu Rongzu was Tiancewansui’s grandnephew, being the sole grandson of her half-brother Zhu Bingwen. Jianyi Emperor was the last non-Christian emperor. He was alarmed both by the Catholic–Austronesian majority, and the cultural and demographic decline of the Sino-Tondolese minority, which now comprised a tenth of the population–half their share at the start of the century. These trends both threatened the Chinese and Confucian foundation of the Southern Ming state. In 1802, he reinstituted penalties against Chinese Christians found in the Great Ming Code; this did not apply to the natives. This was both unpopular and largely unenforceable. Emperor Jianyi later prohibited known Christians from partaking in imperial examintions (while retaining those already in civil service) and reinforced State Neo-Confucianism. To this effect, he closed the Jesuit-run University of Manila on its 200th-year anniversary, and diverting imperial funds to the Taixue. Nevertheless, recognizing the importance of the European export trade, he allowed foreigners to proselytize among the non-Chinese ethnic groups; he especially preferred Protestant missionaries from Britain and the Netherlands, to counteract the Catholic majority. Like earlier emperors, the Jianyi Emperor considered Christianity to be ideologically reconcilable with Confucianism–a position demonstrated by the Jesuits. He was thus concerned with the idea of papal supremacy, which conflicted with the Mandate of Heaven and his sovereign power as Emperor.

Apart from being the last non-Christian emperor, he was the last to make any earnest attempts to retake China. In 1803, he sent an expedition led by Admiral Huang Donghai to capture mainland China’s southeastern provinces. Huang Donghai managed to arouse an insurrection among Taiwanese aborigines, but failed to take over the entirety of the province. He briefly occupied the Pescadores, which was used to raid ports in Fujian like Amoy. He attempted to raid Canton, but departed without engaging with Qing naval forces. In 1806, the campaign was deemed a failure, and the Jianyi Emperor ordered the execution of Huang Donghai for his failure to take any Chinese territory. His execution, however, was thwarted by the Jianyi Emperor’s death at the age of 27. It is believed he may have been poisoned under the orders of his aunt Zhu Fenfang, who wanted her son Zhu Guiren to be placed on the throne. Emperor Jianyi left no issue. Zhu Guiren took on the era name “Taiping” 太平, meaning “great peace”. Zhu Fenfang exerted a great deal of influence over court affairs until 1810, when her health diminished.

The Taiping Emperor readily reversed Jianyi’s policies against Christians, albeit these were never rigorously implemented in the first place. The Taiping Emperor, however, was similarly wary of papal influence. In 1812, he declared the independence of the Catholic Church in Tondo–this differed from the policies of prior emperors (who selectively interfered in clerical appointments), as the Tondolese Church was declared fully separate from the Holy See. The Archbishop of Manila was given religious primacy, though the Emperor had the privilege to convene councils and to veto clerical appointments. There is evidence that the Taiping Emperor colluded with the then-Archbishop of Manila, Sima Qiqiang Judas, and received the collective approval of Tondo’s (native) bishops prior to announcing the split from the Holy See. There were limited doctrinal differences between Latin Catholicism and Tondolese Catholicism, with the Tondolese Church reaffirming Catholic dogma. There were important differences, however, such as the use of vernaculars in Mass and in scripture, female ordination (up to rank of deaconess), limited clerical celibacy, and the tolerance of folk-saints and folk practices. The Jesuits, as representatives of the Holy See, were expelled from the court, as were clerics of foreign origin. There was limited opposition to the declaration, mainly concentrated in Visayas. The Taiping Emperor’s decision to split from the Church at Rome had minimal consequences on trade, which continued to flourish into the 19th and 20th centuries. However, Tondo’s Catholics, who numbered six million (more than in Brazil or Mexico), were excommunicated by papal bull in 1814.

In 1820, the Taiping Emperor died, leaving the throne to his son Zhu Qingsheng. Zhu Qingsheng took the era name “Yongping” (永平, meaning “long calm”). Emperor Yongping’s reign was one of relative peace, but also of relative military decline. By the early 19th century, the Southern Ming army and navy, which employed European firearms and naval artillery, was arguably East Asia’s most modern military. However, the First Industrial Revolution led to economic dynamism and military innovation in Europe, leading to a wider technological gap between the Southern Ming and its rivals in Southeast Asia. Military decline can also be attributed to a lack of active military campaigns (in contrast to the nonstop conquests and territorial consolidation of the 18th century), and the incompetency of the military aristocracy. There was also economic decline. Luzon and Visayas’ growing populations led to the division of farmland into smaller and more intensively-cultivated plots–driving an exodus to land in Mindanao, and to a lesser extent, Borneo. European traders also began trading opium, a popular recreational drug, to create a balance in trade–resulting in the outflow of silver bullion. The Yongping Emperor’s reign lasted until 1840. He is retrospectively regarded as a well-meaning but idle emperor, being primarily concerned with the arts rather than administration.

The Yongping Emperor was succeeded by his son, Zhu Shihong, who ruled as the Rixin Emperor (r. 1840–1851). The Rixin Emperor’s rule was marked by both internal conflict–in the form of anti-Southern Ming sentiment and nascent Tondolese nationalism, and by external conflict–in the form of European inrcusions.

Early Tondolese nationalism arose from a dissastifaction with Sino-Tondolese cultural domination–embodied in the monarchy. This had precedents in the 18th century. For example, native nobles Silang Yuxuan Jacobus and Li Baozhai Gabriel were executed in 1763 for releasing anti-Chinese material, and for provoking local rebellion. Later, official and poet Mayaman Huoxing Johannes (also referred to as João Mayaman) founded the “Native Tondolese Society”. Likewise, he was executed in 1805 by the Jianyi Emperor, for his allegedly anti-state activities. His works, which include 8,000 poems, remained widely popular and influential. His discourse on the existence of a unique “Tondolese nation” resonated particularly among the populace. Indeed, many people, even the Sino-Tondolese, felt detached from China; this contrasted witha growing identification with Tondo. The Rixin Emperor responded to anti-Chinese sentiment by reinvigorating the policy of Literacy Inquisition. “Subsersive” works, such as that of Mayaman Huoxing, were systematically sought out and burnt; this later extended to even vernacular novels with perceived Romantic themes (the Four Tondolese Classics were among these).

In 1840, British explorer James Brooke sailed to Borneo. After thwarting a local rebellion, he was given a fief (which consisted of Kuching) by the Sultan of Brunei. This was opposed by the Rixin Emperor, who viewed James Brooke’s presence as a security threat. James Brooke was expelled from Kuching, whence he fled to British Singapore. Emboldened by their recent victory over Qing China in the Opium War, the British launched a punitive expedition against the Southern Ming. The Battle of Kuching (1841) led to the decimation of the Southern Ming navy in the region, and challenged its control over the island of Borneo. In 1842, the British decided to launch another punitive expedition, this time targeting Luzon. Utilizing their superior ships and firepower, they sailed into Manila Bay, occupying the foreign quarters of Manila and the port city of Kawit. The Rixin Emperor was thus forced to sue for peace, signing the Treaty of Kawit. The treaty opened all Tondolese ports to foreign trade, and also allowed foreign businesses to operate in the islands. Britain’s victory set a precedent for future European interventions in the region, with the Dutch, British, Spanish, French–and eventually, the Sierrans–all exploiting the Southern Ming’s military weakness.