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Kalhan language

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 This article is part of the Kalșeri project.
Kalhan
Kalșerian
Kalhan
Pronunciation [ˈkaɫxɐn]
Native to  Kalseri
Region Eastern North America
Ethnicity Kalșerian
Native speakers
~8,000,000 (2018)
L2 speakers: 3.5 million
Language isolate (Kalhanic)
Early forms
Proto-Kalhanic
  • Old Kalhan
    • Middle Kalhan
      • Kalhan
Dialects
  • New Lothianer
  • Evalrian
  • Kaluonic
  • Loscafian
  • Henrien
  • Takalese
Latin script
Old Kalhan alphabet
Kalhan Sign Language
Official status
Regulated by Kalhan Raladure
Language codes
ISO 639-1 kh
ISO 639-2 ksr
ISO 639-3 kar
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

Kalhan (Kalhan [ˈkaɫxɐn] or Kalhan rala [ˈkaɫxɐn ˈralɐ]) is a language spoken primarily in Kalșeri. Linguistically, Kalhan is a language isolate, as it has no relations to any other known living languages. Kalhan is spoken natively by eight million people, of which 97% live in Kalșeri, plus another 3.5 million people.

Name

The official name of the language is Kalhan, as declared by the Kalhan Raladure, the regulatory body of the language; the institute argues that this is because the language came into existence before the modern country of Kalșeri, whose name is a corruption of Kalhanseri ("Home of Kalhan").

Foreign entities and people may also call Kalhan "Kalșerian", even though the Raladure has labelled the usage of the demonym to denote the language "anachronistic".

History

Proto-Kalhan began to be spoken around 3500 BCE, with several Kalhanic languages being spoken in the islands. The co-existence ended with the Lág conquest of the other chiefdoms, with acts being passed by the royal authority that would force new subjects to learn the Égiaton variant spoken in Lág.

In 1583, Philip I introduced the Latin alphabet, which substituted the Old Kalhan alphabet for official purposes.

In 1941, the Kalhan Raladure issued a language reform, abolishing the letters C, Ç, Ļ, Ñ, Ø, Y and Z, the ergative, intrative and "circumessive" cases and removing acute accents from words where they were deemed unnecessary. Many foreign words introduced into the Kalhan vocabulary by scholars during the Age of Enlightenment, deemed redundant by the Language Review Commission, were removed from the Official Vocabulary and replaced with existing words or calques.

In 1995, the Old Kalhan alphabet was reintroduced as part of the curriculum of some schools nationwide, at the behest of the religious institution New Serigéa Organization.

Phonology

Consonants

Consonant Phonemes of Standard Kalhan
Bilabial Labiodental Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Plosive voiceless ⟨p⟩ p ⟨t⟩ t () ⟨k⟩ k
voiced ⟨b⟩ b ⟨d⟩ d () ⟨g⟩ g
Nasal ⟨m⟩ m ⟨n⟩ n (ŋ)
Fricative voiceless ⟨f⟩ f ⟨s⟩ s
⟨ș⟩ ʃ
⟨h⟩ x
voiced ⟨v⟩ v (z)
⟨j⟩ ʒ
Trill ⟨r⟩ r
Approximant ⟨l⟩ l (ɫ) j
Flap (ɾ)
  • In colloquial speech, /x/ is often either rendered as /h/ or not pronounced at all.
  • /l/ is "darkened" into /ɫ/ at the end of words and before /x/. In spoken Kalhan, /l/ is often dropped when followed by /j/ or r.
  • /n/ is rendered as /m/ before p or b, and dropped when followed by r.
  • /s/ is voiced (/z/) before r, m, b, v, d or g and between vowels.
  • /p/ and /b/ may be realized as /ɸ/ and /β/ by some speakers.
    • Some speakers may also merge /p/ and /f/ into /ɸ/, and /b/ and /v/ into /β/.
  • The clusters /rd/, /rn/, /rs/, /rt/, /dj/, /nj/, /sj/ and /tj/ may be rendered as /ɖ/, /ɳ/, /ʂ/ and /ʈ/.
  • The combination /hj/ is often rendered as /ç/.

Vowels

Vowel Phonemes of Standard Kalhan
Front Central Back
Close ⟨i⟩ [i] ⟨u⟩ [u]
Near-close ([ɪ]) ([ʊ])
Close-mid ⟨e⟩ [e] ⟨o⟩ [o]
Open-mid ([ɛ]) ([ɔ])
Near-open ([ɐ])
Open ⟨a⟩ [a]
  • In unstressed syllables, [a], [i] and [u] become [ɐ], [ɪ] and [ʊ].
  • [e] is often lowered to [ɛ] in monosyllabic words and, in a syllable of a non-monosyllabic word, before m, n, l and r.

Orthography

The Latin alphabet was introduced in 1583 by Philip I, to help Spanish missionaries print a bible in Kalhan. It was adapted from the Spanish alphabet and consisted of twenty-eight letters:

Capital letters
A B C Ch D E F G H I J K L Ll M N Ñ O Oe P R S T U V X Y Z
Lower case letters
a b c ch d e f g h i j k l ll m n ñ o oe p r s t u v x y z

In 1698, a spelling reform was introduced, redefining Ch as Ç, Ll as Ļ, Oe as Ø and X as Ș.

Capital letters
A B C Ç D E F G H I J K L Ļ M N Ñ O Ø P R S Ș T U V Y Z
Lower case letters
a b c ç d e f g h i j k l ļ m n ñ o ø p r s ș t u v y z

In 1811, Jean-Raymond Palices, a French-Kalșerian priest in Henriville, introduced an updated version of the 1698 alphabet, scrapping the letters Ñ, Ø, Y and Z. His ortographic reform saw moderate success, especially in northern Kalșeri, but it was not officially adopted by the Kalhan Raladure. The modern Kalhan alphabet, introduced in 1941, acknowledged Palices's changes and discarded the letters C, Ç, Ļ, Ñ, Ø, Y and Z, as they were deemed phonetically redundant. The modern Kalhan alphabet is thus twenty-one letters long:

Capital letters
A B D E F G H I J K L M N O P R S Ș T U V
Lower case letters
a b d e f g h i j k l m n o p r s ș t u v

Words containing the scrapped letters were rewritten according to their pronunciation:

1698 spelling Middle Kalhan pronunciation Modern pronunciation 1941 respelling
cem ("sorry", "excuse me") [tʃɛm] [ʃɛm] șem
eçan ("three") [ˈeçɐn] [ˈeʃɐn] eșan
ļa ("night", "nighttime") [ʎa] [lja] lia
aña ("other", "another") [ˈaɲɐ] [ˈanjɐ] ania
øve ("near, around") [ˈøve] [ˈove] ove
ølor ("first") [ˈølɔr] [ˈoilɔr] oilor
kym ("time", "when") [kʉm] [kim] kim
teza ("to hope", "to wish") [ˈtezɐ] tesa

Pronunciation

Letter Name IPA Notes
A   a a /a ~ ɐ/
B   b be /b/
C   c ce /tʃ ~ ʃ/ Abolished in 1941, rewritten as Ș. Now a "foreign" letter.
Ç   ç çe
franston ce ("French C")
/ç ~ ʃ/ Ch until 1698. Abolished in 1941, rewritten as Ș.
D   D de /d/
Dj   dj dja /dʒ/ Diphthong.
E   e e /e ~ ɛ/
F   f ef /f ~ ɸ/
G   g ga /g ~ ɣ/
H   h ha /x ~ h ~ ∅/
I   i i /i ~ ɪ ~ j/
J   j je /ʒ/
K   k ka /k/
L   l el /l ~ ɫ/
Ļ   ļ ļa /ʎ ~ lj ~ j/ Abolished in 1941, rewritten as li or i.
M   m em /m/
N   n en /n/
Ñ   ñ ña /ɲ ~ nj/ Abolished in 1941, rewritten as ni.
O   o o /o ~ ɔ/
Ø   ø lanni o ("O with line") /ø ~ œ ~ o/ Oe until 1698. Abolished in 1941, rewritten as O or Oi.
P   p pe /p/
Q   q kua
Spanton ka ("Spanish K")
/kw/ "Foreign" letter.
R   r er /r ~ ɾ/
S   s es /s/, /z/ between vowels
Ș   ș șa /ʃ/ X until 1698.
T   t te /t/
Ts   ts /s/ Diphthong, employed to force /s/ between vowels, e.g. Teknetsium /tekˈnesjʊm/.
Tș   tș tșa /tʃ/ Diphthong.
U   u u /u ~ ʊ ~ w/
V   v ve /v ~ β ~ w ~ ∅/
W   w simlor ve
Almanton ve ("German V")
/w ~ v/ "Foreign" letter.
X   x eks /ks ~ gz ~ ʃ/ Abolished in 1698.
Y   Y élenton i ("Greek I") /y ~ ʉ ~ i/ Abolished in 1941, rewritten as I. Now a "foreign" letter.
Z   Z zeta /z/ Abolished in 1941, rewritten as S. Now a "foreign" letter.

C, Q, W, X, Y and Z, while not part of the standard Kalhan alphabet, may appear in proper names and loanwords. The Raladure recommends using the letter X only when the letter Ș, or similar-looking character Ş, is unavailable.

Grammar

Kalhan is a fusional language similar to many Indo-European languages.

Verbs

Kalhan conjugation is affected by mood, person, tense and number.

By default, the infinitive form of a verb is indicated by the suffix -și.

Kalhan has eleven inflections:

Mood Ending Example (édeși, "to hide") Example (ronși, "to wash") Usage
Present eder ("I hide/I am hiding") roner ("I wash/I am washing")
  • Events happening in the present
  • Habitual actions
  • Current states of being and conditions
Past -na édenar ("I hid/have hidden/have been hiding") ronnar ("I washed/have washed/have been washing")
  • Actions or events started in the past that may or may not influence the present
Future -rki éderkir ("I will hide") rorkir ("I will wash")
  • Planned or unplanned future events
Reflexive -(e)șo edeșor ("I hide myself/I am hiding myself") ronșor ("I wash myself/I am getting washed")
  • Subject performs the action to itself
Conditional -ve édever ("I might hide") ronver ("I might wash")
  • Actions that have a chance of happening
  • Events that are dependent upon another event occurring
  • Politely asking for something
Dynamic -hi édehir ("I can/may hide") ronhir ("I can/may wash")
  • Subject is able or allowed perform the action specified by the verb
Deontic -șa/-ra édeșar ("I need to/have to/must hide") ronșar ("I need to/have to/must wash")
  • Subject is obliged to perform the action specified by the verb
Volitive -do edor ("I want to hide") rondor ("I want to wash")
  • Subject wishes to perform the action specified by the verb
Imperative -ș- + personal pronoun édeșki! ("Hide!")
édintașki! ("Do not hide!")
ronșki! ("Wash!")
róntașki! ("Do not wash!")
  • Giving commands
Passive -ien édiener ("I am hidden") róniener ("I am washed")
  • Subject is the destination of an action
Negative -(i)nta édintar ("I do not hide/am not hiding") rónintar ("I do not wash/am not washing")
  • Indicates that the subject is not performing an action

Every verb may then be followed by a personal ending. As a result of the language reform of 1941, the personal suffixes are no longer mandatory, thus validating the use of the personal suffixes alone, personal suffixes with pronouns and pronouns alone, i.e. Naksir gínago, Ho naksir gínago and Ho naksi gínago (all meaning "I go/am going to the store") are all equally valid.

Person Ending
First singular -(e)r
Second singular -(e)ne
Third singular -(e)de
First plural -(e)șar
Second plural -(e)șane
Third plural -(e)șade

Verb conjugation meets the following sequence:

  • the infinitive form of a verb withou the suffix și;
  • the tense ending;
  • the personal ending.

Nouns

Most nouns in Kalhan have no clear affix denoting their syntactic property. However, some nouns use a system of suffixes denoting their semantic properties:

  • -(a)rdo for nouns related to feelings;
  • -(a)rfa for nouns related to nature and natural events;
  • -(a)rso for nouns related to time;
  • -re for tools and actions;
  • -gi for types of people (such as ethnic groups and jobs);
  • -hal for places.

Cases

Kalhan has eleven cases, often separated in two groups: syntactic and spatiotemporal. Case endings are attached to the main word as such:

  • if the last letter of a main word is a vowel:
    • if the first letter of the case suffix is a consonant, the suffix is simply attached to the main word;
    • if the first letter of the case suffix is a vowel, the last vowel of the proper word is removed.
  • if the last letter of a main word is a consonant:
    • if the first letter of the case suffix is a consonant, the suffix is simply attached to the main word;
  • if the last letter is m, it turns into n before the genitive, accusative, comitative, instrumental, ablative and perlative cases.
  • if the last consonant of a word is t, the accusative becomes -tua for singular, and -tiva for plural.
  • if the last consonant of a noun is liquid (l, r), any vowel after it is removed.
  • if the noun is plural, the plural marker -ia is placed before the case.
  • if the noun is a proper noun (e.g. Sara, Rome, Algeria, Starbucks), it is also possible to apply the case suffix by separating it from the proper name with an apostrophe, without changing the noun itself.
Case Ending Example 1 (șorna, "table") Example 2 (lem, "end") Example 3 (seria, "houses") Example 4 (Nikoleta, a proper name) Example 5 (Tșile, "Chile") Notes
Nominative ("X") șorna lem seria Nikoleta Tșile Up to Middle Kalhan, the nominative case functioned as the intransitive case.
Genitive ("belonging to X") -si șórnasi lensi sériasi Nikolétasi
Nikoleta'si
Tșilsi
Tșile'si
Dative ("to/for X") -u șornu lemu seriau Nikoletu
Nikoleta'u
Tșilu
Tșile'u
Accusative ("X" as patient of an action in an active sentence) -ta șórnata lenta sériata Nikoletua
Nikoleta'ta
Tșilta
Tșile'ta
Also denotes the agent in passive sentences.
Comitative ("along with X") -ni șórnani lenni sériani Nikolétani
Nikoleta'ni
Tșilni
Tșile'ni
Instrumental ("using X") -ku șórnaku lenku sériaku Nikolétaku
Nikoleta'ku
Tșilku
Tșile'ku
Oblique ("regarding X") -(a)lko șórnalko lemalko sérialko Nikolétalko
Nikoleta'lko
Tșilko
Tșile'lko
Inessive ("inside X") -(i)e șórnaie lemie sériake Nikoletie
Nikoleta'ie
Tșilie
Tșile'ie
Also functions as a temporal case. If the noun is plural, the suffix is -ke.
Ablative ("from X") -fi șórnafi lenfi sériaku Nikolétafi
Nikoleta'fi
Tșilfi
Tșile'fi
The ablative case also functions as an initiative case.
Allative ("towards X") -io șornio lemio sériago Nikoletio
Nikoleta'io/Nikoleta'go
Tșilio/Tșilgo
Tșile'io/Tșile'go
The allative case also functions as a terminative case. If the noun is plural, the suffix is -go.
Perlative ("through X") -(a)ha șornaha lenha sériaha Nikolétaha
Nikoleta'ha
Tșilha
Tșile'ha
The perlative case also expresses duration in time.

There are twelve more cases that are no longer used in everyday speech:

Case Ending Example 1 (șorna, "table") Example 2 (lem, "end") Example 3 (seria, "houses") Example 4 (Nikoleta, a proper name) Example 5 (Tșile, "Chile") Notes
Intransitive ("X") șorna lem seria Nikoleta Tșile Became the nominative case in spoken language by Middle Kalhan; the change was acknowledged in 1941.
Ergative ("the X") -le șórnale lemle seriale Nikolétale
Nikoleta'le
Tșílele
Tșile'le
Fell out of use by Middle Kalhan and abolished in 1941; only appears in ancient texts and sayings.
Semblative ("resembling X") -(e)niu șórnaniu lenniu sérianiu Nikolétaniu
Nikoleta'niu
Tșilniu
Tșile'niu
Replaced by the self-standing preposition genu + accusative.
Causative ("because of X") -ksa șórnaksa lenksa sériaksa Nikolétaksa
Nikoleta'ksa
Tșíleksa
Tșile'ksa
Once used to denote the agent in passive sentences, now replaced with the accusative case.
Intrative ("among X") -(e)kia șórnekia lenkia sériakia Nikolétekia
Nikoleta'kia
Tșilkia
Tșile'kia
Replaced by the self-standing preposition kiha + inessive.
Distantitive ("away from X") -(a)rka șórnarka lemmarka sériarka Nikolétarka
Nikoleta'rka
Tșílarka
Tșile'rka
Replaced by the self-standing preposition arka + ablative.
Adessive ("near/at X") -(o)ve șórnave lenve sériave Nikolétave
Nikoleta've
Tșilve
Tșile've
Replaced by the self-standing preposition ove + inessive.
Subessive ("below/under X") -(o)nta șórnanta lenta sériaksa Nikolétanta
Nikoleta'nta
Tșílonta
Tșile'nta
Replaced by the self-standing preposition onta + inessive.
Superessive ("above/over X") -(a)lme șórnalme lelme sérialme Nikolétalme
Nikoleta'lme
Tșilme
Tșile'lme
Replaced by the self-standing preposition lume + inessive.
Antessive ("before X") -(a)lu șórnalu lemalu sérialu Nikolétalu
Nikoleta'lu
Tșílalu
Tșile'lu
Replaced by the self-standing preposition ol + inessive.
Postessive ("after/behind X") -(e)lto șórnalto lemelto sérialto Nikolétalto
Nikoleta'lto
Tșilto
Tșile'lto
Replaced by the self-standing preposition el + inessive.
"Circumessive" ("surrounding X") -(e)rtu șórnartu lemertu sériartu Nikolétartu
Nikoleta'rtu
Tșílertu
Tșile'rtu
Tentative name. Replaced by the self-standing preposition ertu + inessive.

Of these, the intransitive and ergative cases do not appear in textbooks at all.

Pronouns

Personal

Kalhan has nine personal pronouns:

  • ho (I)
  • ki (singular you)
  • uan (he)
  • ian (she)
  • uaș (it, for objects)
  • ein (singular they, for living beings whose sex is unknown)
  • șer (we; inclusive)
  • vana (we; exclusive)
  • kina (plural you)
  • eineș (plural they)

Personal pronouns are inflected in the same way as nouns.

Punctuation

Standard punctuation was first codified in 1941. Much of the punctuation of Kalhan and its usage may also be found in other languages; three items, however, are considered uncommon outside of Kalhan, either due to their graphical appearance or due to their usage: ¿, ¡ and .

Name Glyph Usage Example
Apostrophe (apóstrofo or furfie șaná, "full stop in the air") ' Denoting a contraption. It is also sometimes used to separate a proper noun from a declension. Ian vúina kronta Ioen'u ("She gave the book to John")
Colon (sim șanaia, "two full stops") : Enumeration and clarification of previous clauses Skona sim ionia: Ron e Laura. ("There were two children: Ron and Laura.")
Comma (iușaná, "half point") , Setting boundaries between clauses and phrases Șa, nenia e tașa ("Bread, apples and beer")
Dash (lan, "line") - Applying a prefix to a word for which there is no canonical compound word. It is also used to separate proper nouns and numbers from the declension, much like the apostrophe. Kirkia sana(d) Churchill-ta 1952-e. ("Kirkia met Churchill in 1952.")
Ellipsis (eșan șanaia or omisis) ...
Marking omitted text and long pauses. The vertical variant ( ⋮ ) was used in older texts, and is still sometimes used as a graphical variant of "..." Ternan... Șil kisi neharnia. ("I made it... Despite your directions.")
En dash (ralton lan, "long line") Replacing a comma when the subsequent clause significantly shifts the primary focus of the preceding text. It is also used to denote where the English verb "to be" would normally be seen. Serișan plus tunien serinimi Kalșerie ("The domestic dog is the most common pet in Kalșeri.")
Exclamation mark (ja-șaná, "yes-point") ! Marking a genuine exclamation. Votér hotelie, ligi! ("Welcome to the Hotel, Sir!")
Full stop (șaná) . Used at the end of affirmative sentences Mark ron uans auto. ("Mark is washing his car.")
Inverted exclamationtion mark (sarkaston ja-șaná, "sarcastic yes-point") ¡ Marking a sarcastic exclamation Lin ja kim narivú fo drid¡ ("I sure love when the computer doesn't work!", hinting that the speaker does not actually like dealing with a broken computer)
Inverted question mark (sarkaston ne-șaná, "sarcastic what-point") ¿ Marking a sarcastic or rhetorical question Nehal skove uan¿ ("Where could he be?", hinting that the speaker already knows where the subject is)
Question mark (ne-șaná, "what-point") ? Marking a genuine question. Sometimes separated by a space, especially in Relkaf. Neu losis nad kisi onkrefi? ("Why is smoke coming out of your oven?")
Quotation marks (nușanaia, "speaking points") ‘...’, “...”, '...', "..." Reporting a sentence said by someone "Nehal șalia?", nuna María. ("Where are the keys?", said Mary.)
Semicolon (erinșaná, "combined point") ; Separating independent but related clauses and separating items in a list when the items have commas Sanan eșan gia: Ahmed, Ejiptufi; Bernard, henagi; e Ligi Smith, fergi. ("I met three people: Ahmed, from Egypt; Bernard, the chef; and Mr. Smith, the deaf.")
Slash (barra) / Indicating alternatives. It is usually read au ("or"). uans/ians ("his/her")